CGU Faculty Publications and Research

The Phenomenology of Koan Meditation in Zen Buddhism

Jerry L. Grenard — Fri, 17 May 2013 11:24:59 PDT

Zen students described their experiences when working with koans, and a phenomenological method was used to identify the structure of those experiences. Zen koans are statements or stories developed in China and Japan by Zen masters in order to help students transform their conscious awareness of the world. Eight participants including 3 females and 5 males from Southern California with 1 to 30 years of experience in Zen answered open-ended questions about koan practice in one tape-recorded session for each participant. Refl ection yielded the following thematic clusters: (a) motivation, (b) approaches to working with koans, (c) experiences while working with koans, (d) experiences of insight into koans, (e) working with a teacher, and (f ) transformation. Participants described positive transformations including better control of emotions and concentration, better awareness of prejudices and biases with the ability to suppress those types of habitual associations, and a new relation to and acceptance of spiritual questions and doubts.

Ricochets and Replies: RPMA Update

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 10 May 2013 11:36:55 PDT

My article "Generations, Waves, and Epochs: Modes of Warfare and the RPMA" (Spring 1996)—which I wrote in the summer of 1995—made reference to two lesser-known theories of future warfare not debated at the time in the military journals. However, these two theories have now begun to actively influence military thinking. In order further facilitate the emerging revolution in political and military affairs (RPMA) debate within the Air Force, I'm including a synopsis and analysis of these two theories.

The Transition to Fourth Epoch War

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 10 May 2013 11:36:54 PDT

Based upon the influence that energy sources have exerted on the evolution of warfare over the broad expense of history, this author identifies eight basic trends that he believes will characterize "the changing face of war" through the early 21st century.

A Crucible of Conflict: Third Generation Gang Studies Revisited

John P. Sullivan et al. — Fri, 10 May 2013 11:36:53 PDT

This essay briefly recounts the evolution of the gangs that occupy failed communities and states, further discusses and updates the model of third generation street gangs discussed in an earlier Journal of Gang Research article—typically described simply as third generation gangs (3 GEN Gangs), and suggests strategies for coping with and mitigating this evolved form of gang violence. Of note is the lack of impact 3 GEN Gangs studies have had on domestically focused U.S. academic gang research while, at the same time, becoming a dominant model in use by defense analysis and scholars focusing on increasingly politicized non-state threat groups including heavily armed Latin American gang.

Long-Term Effects of Self-Control on Alcohol Use and Sexual Behavior among Urban Minority Young Women

Kenneth W. Griffin et al. — Fri, 10 May 2013 11:36:52 PDT

High risk alcohol use and sexual behaviors peak in young adulthood and often occur in the same individuals. Alcohol use has been found to impair decision-making and contribute to high risk sexual activity. However, the association between alcohol use and risky sexual behavior may also reflect enduring individual differences in risk taking, sociability, self-control, and related variables. Both behaviors can serve similar functions related to recreation, interpersonal connection, and the pursuit of excitement or pleasure. The present study examined the extent to which high risk drinking and sexual behavior clustered together in a sample of urban minority young adult women, a demographic group at elevated risk for negative outcomes related to sexual health. We tested whether psychosocial functioning measured at the beginning of high school predicted classes of risk behaviors when girls were tracked longitudinally into young adulthood. Latent class analysis indicated three distinct profiles based on high risk drinking and sexual behavior (i.e., multiple sex partners) in young adulthood. The largest class (73% of the sample) reported low levels of risky drinking and sexual behavior. The next largest class (19%) reported high risk drinking and low risk sexual behavior, and the smallest class (8%) reported high levels of both behaviors. Compared to women from other racial/ethnic groups, black women were more likely to be categorized in the high risk drinking/low risk sex class. Multinomial logistic regression indicated that self-control in adolescence had a broad and enduring protective effect on risk behaviors eight years later and was associated with a greater probability of being in the low risk drinking/low risk sex class. Findings are discussed in terms of understanding the phenotypic expressions of risk behavior as they relate to early psychosocial development and the long-term protective function of self-control in reducing high risk drinking and sexual behaviors.

Affective Decision-making Predictive of Chinese Adolescent Drinking Behaviors

Lin Xiao et al. — Fri, 10 May 2013 11:36:51 PDT

The goal of the current investigation was to address whether affective decision making would serve as a unique neuropsychological marker to predict drinking behaviors among adolescents. We conducted a longitudinal study of 181 Chinese adolescents in Chengdu city, China. In their 10th grade (ages 15–16), these adolescents were tested for their affective decision-making ability using the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) and working memory capacity using the Self-Ordered Pointing Test. Self-report questionnaires were used to assess academic performance and drinking behaviors. At 1-year follow-up, questionnaires were completed to assess drinking behaviors, and the UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale was used to examine four dimensions of impulsivity: urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation seeking. Results indicated that those adolescents who progressed to binge drinking or exhibited consistent binge drinking not only performed poorly on the IGT but also scored significantly higher in urgency compared to those who never or occasionally drank. Moreover, better IGT scores predicted fewer drinking problems and fewer drinks 1 year later after controlling for demographic variables, the previous drinking behaviors, working memory, and impulsivity. These findings suggest that deficits in affective decision making may be important independent determinants of compulsive drinking and potentially addictive behavior in adolescents. (JINS, 2009, 15, 547–557.)

Generations, Waves, and Epochs: Modes of Warfare and the RPMA

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 10 May 2013 11:36:50 PDT

Tofflerian concepts, which have gained so much credence with the Army, are now beginning to openly influence Air Force dialogue on information-based future wars.

Third Generation Gang Studies: An Introduction

Robert J. Bunker et al. — Fri, 10 May 2013 11:36:49 PDT

This paper reviews the literature and research related to third generation street gangs. Widely known as third generation gangs (3 GEN Gangs), these complex gangs operation with broad reach—often across borders—and have mercenary and at times political and potentially terrorist objectives. These are frequently identified as transnational gangs, known as Maras, and occupy the 3 GEN niche. The typology of the three generations of gang revolution, based on the interaction of three factors: politicization, internationalism, and sophistication found in the literature is also described. Finally, future research and security concerns are identified.

Op-Ed: The Need For A "Half-Pivot to the Americas"

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:11:04 PDT

Much discussion has been generated over the still relatively new U.S. strategic “Pivot to Asia” and what this will mean for our national defense policy and force structure. This pivot represents what will become a multi-year shift from the legacy of 9-11, with over a decade’s focus on ground and counterinsurgency operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, to a rebalancing of national effort, emphasizing air, naval, and space (both orbital and cyber) forces, focused on a rising China. Concern now exists that China, with the world’s largest population of over 1.3 billion people and the world’s second largest economy, will potentially emerge as a peer competitor to the United States.

Five-Dimensional (Cyber) Warfighting: Can the Army After Next Be Defeated Through Complex Concepts and Technologies?

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:11:04 PDT

The theme for the U.S. Army War College's Ninth Annual Strategy Conference (April 1998) is "Challenging the United States Symmetrically and Asymmetrically: Can America Be Defeated?" Dr. Robert J. Bunker of California State University, San Bernardino, answers the question with an emphatic "yes." He expounds a scenario in which a future enemy (BlackFor) concedes that the U.S. Army's (BlueFor) superior technology, advanced weaponry, and proven record of success in recent military operations make it virtually invulnerable to conventional forms of symmetric attack. Therefore, BlackFor seeks asymmetric ways to obviate BlueFor's advantages. Dr. Bunker's scenario frontally assaults some of the premises he sees emerging from the Army After Next Project. It posits not a new peer competitor for the United States, but a new type of enemy for which, in Dr. Bunker's view, we will be ill-prepared, given our likely force development azimuths over the next two decades. It may be tempting to dismiss the possibility of an enemy possessing all the capabilities Dr. Bunker describes. Nonetheless, his paper points to potential changes in warfare that, even partially effected, must absorb our Army's professional attention as we address the challenges of the next century.

Epochal Change: War Over Social and Political Organization

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:11:03 PDT

The United States has been less affected by this process than most other Western nation-states; we seem to prosper despite such challenges. However, the breakdown of the family, increased drug use among our children, the growing specter of gang violence, and other forms of social terrorism suggest that our own institutions are not immune to a degree of chaos. Ralph Peters, in an earlier Parameters article, stated succinctly that we are witnessing "a struggle to redefine human meaning."[3] Regardless of the state of the revolution to which he referred, the struggle he describes is far from ended. If the examples of Western history are any indication, we may expect increasing chaos during the shift from what has been called the "modern" era to its successor.[4] Much like a chemical process in a crucible, the deconstruction likely to accompany change can be the process by which existing forms of social and political organization are burned away and new forms emerge to take their place. This article examines two periods of similar transition, and analyzes characteristics of contemporary values and institutions which suggest that the Western world may face a period comparable to previous epochal shifts in warfare.

Advanced Battlespace and Cybermaneuver Concepts: Implications for Force XXI

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:11:02 PDT

This article argues that the traditional perception of the battlefield reveals the limiting assumptions upon which Force XXI is built, that it is constrained by its three dimensions, and that it is most likely outmoded. Paradoxically, it is the rise of nonWestern warfare and the proliferation of advanced weaponry that together have made current "spatial concepts" of the modern battlefield obsolete.[1] To be an effective military force into the 21st century, the US Army should start now to redefine the battlefield so that new operational concepts can evolve and produce the doctrine and materiel requirements that will lead to meaningful restructuring of all components of the land force. Without a new conceptual model, Force XXI will fail to take full advantage of the potential inherent in new and emerging technology, no matter how successful it is in developing technology appliqués for its existing fleets of tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, artillery systems, and aircraft.

The Tofflerian Paradox

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:11:01 PDT

Given the issue's importance—the Army's future as an effective 21st-century warfighting institution—Tofflerian theory attributes that are conceptually flawed should be forcefully acknowledged. With this perspective in mind, I posit that the war forms developed in War and Anti-War, specifically First and Second Wave war, are overgeneralized and distort Western warfare's historical development. As such, the war forms do not significantly further RMA theory and potentially pose a great liability. Still, these terms are becoming accepted by Army scholars because of the Tofflers' great theoretical influence.

Strategy for the Blind

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:11:00 PDT

A well-known, respected military scholar and decorated Korean and Vietnam war veteran, retired US Army Colonel Harry G. Summers Jr. is a former holder of prestigious chairs at the US Army War College and Marine Corps University. Best known for his On Strategy: A Critical Analysis of the Vietnam War (1982); On Strategy II: A Critical Analysis of the Gulf War (1992); and his weekly column in Army Times, his important associations and powerful influence make him one of our country's military intellectual elites.

Rethinking OOTW

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:11:00 PDT

This article challenges the concept and, by default, the continuum shown in Figure 1 and the range of military operations in the theater strategic environment (hereafter referred to as the RMO model), which it helps define. To do so, it will address the relationship between the OOTW concept and RMO model, the concept of war underlying AirLand Battle doctrine and OOTW as a flawed concept. It further argues that the RMO model should be replaced by not one, but two new politico-military models as a doctrinal bridge. It is not within this article's scope to attempt to create these models, which should reflect recognized differences in current Western and emerging non-Western approaches to warfare. Rather, its purpose is to call attention to a need for interim models to address AirLand Battle future concepts. For this to occur, however, long-held US political perceptions must change. As a result, the revolution in military affairs (RMA) concept must be broadened to include a political dimension.

Cultural Relativism and Afghanistan: A Failure of Policy Not Counterinsurgency Efforts

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:01:26 PDT

While it may be true that many Afghani people yearn for our freedoms and system of governance, such nation building cannot be done without radically reengineering Afghani tribal society. Incising only the offending portions of Afghani culture, as the sergeant suggests, will not work. Do we eliminate blood feuds but not child brides and the honor killings of soiled daughters? Do we stop the execution of Muslim converts to Christianity?

Nonlethal Weapons: A British Review

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:01:25 PDT

Hundreds of documents and articles have been published about nonlethal weapons (NLW) since the 1960s. However, few books had been published on the subject. As NLW significance becomes more recognized for the operational advantages they provide in the Western urban and "failed-state" settings, more books are appearing. Malcolm Dando's book A New Form of Warfare: The Rise of Nonlethal Weapons and Nick Lewer and Steven Schofield's book Nonlethal Weapons: A Fatal Attraction? Military Strategies and Technologies for 21st-Century Conflict are two of the first books to appear. All three authors are academics with ties to the fields of peace studies and conflict resolution.

Failed-State Operational Environment Concepts

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:01:25 PDT

To help the Army redefine operations in failed states, I propose a new politico-military model. This operational environment model would be composed of a four-cell matrix that would include "war and crime," "war," "crime" and "peace." Three of the cells - war, crime and peace - would pertain to traditional Clausewitzian issues; the fourth - war and crime - would pertain to an emergent neo-Clausewitzian one. To extrapolate the model, we begin with the condition of war. This environment is one of "military issues" that occur between nation-states. It defines the rationale behind US Army operations, as stated in the June 1993 FM 100-5, that after war breaks out, seeks to achieve decisive victory against military forces of belligerent nation-states or their coalitions.

Higher-Dimensional Warfighting

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:01:24 PDT

This article will build upon earlier battlespace research by discussing higher dimensional warfighting and its potential impact upon future operations. Further, it will cover linear and nonlinear projections of the future battlefield, highlight recent research concerning five-dimensional {cyber} battlespace, analyze concepts and technologies underlying bond-relationship targeting and cybershielding and explore warfighting implications of redefined battlespace.

Martin van Creveld on Men, Women and War

Robert J. Bunker — Fri, 03 May 2013 16:01:23 PDT

I was at first apprehensive when approached about writing a review essay on Martin van Creveld’s new book, Men, Women & War: Do Women Belong in the Front Line?¹ The topic was not a key interest of mine, and more pressing real-world needs required my attention. While the sporadic conversations I have had with van Creveld over the last couple of years made me aware of his growing interest and deep fascination with the topic of women in general, this work seemed a diversion from his repertoire of such seminal works as Supplying War: Logistics from Wallerstein to Patton; Command in War; and Technology in War: From 2000 B.C. to the Present.² Luckily, I relented and decided that I should expand my knowledge base by reading van Creveld’s book. As I read and reflected on his new text, I realized that by following his instincts he has once again created a unique work.