A Vascular Flora of the Kiavah Wilderness, Scodie Mountains, Kern County, California

Congress designated the Kiavah Wilderness in 1994 under the California Desert Protection Act. It is located in the Scodie Mountains in Kern County, ca. 24 km (15 mi) east of Lake Isabella and 24 km (15 mi) west of Ridgecrest, and encompasses a total of 137 mi2 (354 km2) with elevations ranging from 1000 to 2200 m (3500–7294 ft). The Wilderness is ecologically important because it occurs in a transition zone between two floristic provinces, the Sierra Nevada of the California Floristic Province and the Mojave Desert of the Desert Province. It is of cultural significance because it has a rich history of Native Americans harvesting pinyon pine nuts and inhabiting the land. Prior to the study ca. 290 vascular plant taxa had been documented, primarily along roads and the Pacific Crest Trail. Jim Shevock and Barbara Ertter made significant collections and contributions to the floristic inventory during the 1980s and early 1990s, and LeRoy Gross added valuable collections in 2005 and 2006. The purpose of the project was to inventory the vascular plant taxa throughout the Kiavah Wilderness, document special status plants, and assess invasive non-native plants. The project took place in 2013–2015, and 68 days were spent in the field. It coincided with three severe to exceptional drought years, the driest span for the site in recorded history. During the study large stands of Pinus monophylla, found in the Wilderness and much of the Southwest, experienced large die-offs. About 1300 plant specimens were collected for the study, which are deposited at RSA, CAS, and UCR. In total, 70 families, 240 genera, 457 species, and 477 minimum-rank taxa were documented, including those collected previously. A total of 28 non-native taxa (5.9% of the flora) and 26 special status plants (5.4%)were documented. Three special status taxa previously documented in theWildernesswere not relocated: Lewisia disepala (Montiaceae), Cordylanthus rigidus subsp. brevibracteatus (Orobanchaceae), and Delphinium purpusii (Ranunculaceae). A range extension for Eriophyllum mohavense (Asteraceae) was documented.


INTRODUCTION
Herbarium collections provide invaluable data for researchers studying ecology, biogeography, evolution, systematics and climate change to better understand the patterns of biodiversity and the processes that shape these patterns (Prather et al. 2004). Locating, identifying and mapping plant populations are essential first steps towards understanding the flora of a particular area. After a site is thoroughly explored and documented, newly gathered information can be added to preexisting knowledge to gain a greater understanding of plant diversity at different scales, including regional and continental. Floristic studies are particularly important for understanding the relationship between plants and climate, especially in context of climate change. This report is the result of a floristic study conducted over three years that coincided with a severe drought. It is projected that California will continue to experience periods of extended drought throughout the rest of the century (Williams et al. 2015). Knowing this, continued study and monitoring of the California flora are vital to predict where native and invasive plant species will C 2017, The Author(s), CC-BY. This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution License, which allows unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original author(s) and source are credited. Articles can be downloaded at http: //scholarship.claremont.edu/aliso/. persist, increase or decline, and how these plants may be managed.
The Kiavah Wilderness is located ca. 24 km (15 mi) east of Lake Isabella and 24 km (15 mi) west of Ridgecrest in Kern County, California (Fig. 1). Its ecological importance derives from its occurrence in a transition zone between two floristic provinces, the Sierra Nevada of the California Floristic Province (higher elevations) and the Mojave Desert of the Desert Province (lower elevations) (Baldwin et al. 2002). The Wilderness covers most of the Scodie Mountains, which is a component range of the southern Sierra Nevada. A small portion of the northern end of the Scodie Mountains lies outside the Wilderness boundary. The Kiavah Wilderness encompasses a total of 354 km 2 (137 mi 2 ), of which 160 km 2 (62 mi 2 ) are managed by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and 194 km 2 (75 mi 2 ) are managed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Sequoia National Forest (SNF), and Kern River Ranger District (BLM 2017).
Southwest of the Scodie Mountains, separated by Kelso Valley, are the Piute Mountains, another range of the Sierra Nevada (Fig. 1). The South Fork of the Kern River, Chimney Creek and Canebrake Creek border the Scodies on the north. To the northeast is the Owens Peak Wilderness, separated from the Scodie Mountains by Walker Pass and Highway 178. A popular off-highway vehicle (OHV) recreational area located on the Jawbone-Butterbredt Area of Critical Environmental Concern flanks the southern and southeastern boundary of the Kiavah Wilderness in the Indian Wells-Searles Valley of the Mojave Desert. Private property parcels abut sections along the north, east and west borders of the Wilderness. The Canebrake Ecological Reserve, managed by the California Depart-ment of Fish and Wildlife, is located in Scodie and Cap canyons (CDFW 2016). The Canebrake Ecological Reserve is closed to the public and a permit must be obtained to enter the reserve. Vascular Flora of the Kiavah Wilderness  Fig. 1, 2). Horse Canyon Road is a rugged and difficult 4 × 4 road that winds its way into the Wilderness and terminates at McIver's Cabin at 2040 m elevation (6696 ft). A large section of this road (ca. 13 km, 8 mi) is part of the PCT that was constructed during the 1980s and transects the Wilderness for 16 mi (25.7 km), from Bird Spring Pass (1637 m, 5371 ft elevation) to Walker Pass Campground (1542 m, 5060 ft). There is an unmaintained trail on the southwest side of the Wilderness from Cane Canyon (1220 m, 4000 ft elevation) to Yellow Jacket Spring (1790 m, 5873 ft). Maintained dirt roads terminate in Sage Canyon and Cow Haven Canyon; from these, one can hike into the Wilderness. Beyond the PCT, no maintained trails exist but cattle and deer trails are abundant.

Topography
The Kiavah Wilderness encompasses portions of six USGS 7.5 topographic quadrangle maps: Cane Canyon, Freeman Junction, Horse Canyon, Onyx, Owens Peak, and Walker Pass. Three valleys and two passes (Fig. 2) surround the Scodie Mountains. Scodie Mountain is the highest point at 2223 m (7294 ft). The next highest peaks in the Wilderness are Skinner Peak at 2170 m (7120 ft), followed by Pinyon and Onyx peaks at 2074 m (6805 ft) and 1598 m (5244 ft), respectively. The higher elevations are part of the crest of the Sierra Nevada and are steep-sided, rugged ridges that trend in an east-west direction. Located in the southeastern section of the Wilderness is a large unnamed plateau that has gentle rolling topography. Baker (1912) described the plateau as "broad-topped summit mountains." Lower elevations (900-1300 m, 3000-4500 ft) are characterized by gentler slopes that extend into valleys as long narrow shoulders that gradually decrease in elevation (Baker 1912).
Major canyons include Bird Spring, Horse, Sage, Boulder and Cow Haven canyons, all of which drain into Indian Wells-Searles Valley (Fig. 2). This watershed provides drinking water to residents of Inyokern and Ridgecrest (EPA 2016). Major canyons draining into the South Fork Kern River are Short, Cane, Cholla, Scodie, Smith, Cap and Spring canyons.

Geology
The history of the Sierra Nevada can be traced back to ca. 542 million years ago (mya) during the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era. At that time, what is now the Sierra Nevada was the floor of an ancient sea where sediments from exposed mountains to the east settled (Hill 2006). At the time of the Triassic Period of the Mesozoic Era, ca. 250-210 mya, magma rose to the surface and cooled to form the Sierran granite core (Hill 2006). Around the Cretaceous Period, 144-66 mya, the Sierra Nevada began to lift and tilt westward and most of the Sierran plutons were formed to create the foundation of the Sierra Nevada batholith (Hill 2006;Hall 2007). Near the beginning of the Cenozoic Era, 65 mya, the Sierra Nevada began to take shape owing to plate tectonics (Hall 2007). During the Pliocene Epoch, 6-8 mya, the Garlock fault along the southern Sierra Nevada continued to move westward, thus allowing for crestal uplift of the southern Sierra Nevada (Hall 2007). By ca. 2 mya, during the Pleistocene Epoch, the Sierra Nevada reached its present height and extent.
Geologic surveys and maps identify the main rock type of the Scodie Mountains as plutonic, Mesozoic in age and characterized by granite, quartz monzonite, granodiorite and quartz diorite ( Fig. 3; CDC 2010). Alluvial deposits are described as light brown in color from the feldspar of the Sierra granite (Baker 1912). Alluvial deposits can be found in the older alluvial, lake, playa and terrace deposits on the lower desert floor in Horse, Sage, and Cow Haven canyons; these are generalized as nonmarine (continental) sediments, and Pleistocene in age (CDC 2010).

Climate
The southern Sierra Nevada experiences a wide range of temperatures, minimal precipitation, and strong winds. Temperature and precipitation are strongly influenced by elevation. According to the Köppen climate classification system, the Kiavah Wilderness experiences a Mediterranean and arid mid-latitude desert climate (Kauffman 2013). Summers are hot and dry, winters are brief and relatively warm, and precipitation is in the form of rain and snow (Twisselmann 1967 1979-1982, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1992 (Gudde 1969). During the late 1700s, Spanish explorers were sent to North America on religious expeditions. In 1776, Father Francisco Garcés was the first European to encounter Native Americans of the lower Kern River Valley (Heard 1987). After this encounter, for the next 50 years, trade between the Native Americans of the southern Sierra Nevada and Europeans ensued (Kern River Valley Specific Plan 2011). In 1834, Tübatulabal Indians led Joseph Walker and his trappers, the first white men to traverse the southern Sierra Nevada, through what is known today as Walker Pass (Gilbert 1985). In 1844, John C. Frémont proposed that the pass be named after Walker (Gudde 1969 (Heard 1987). Upon their defeat, the survivors of the Tübatulabal tribe relocated to the Tule River Indian Reservation (Tulare County) during the early 1900s.
On 1 July 1908, Sequoia National Forest was established and large areas of the southern Sierra Nevada, including the Scodie Mountains, went under SNF management (Davis 1983). In 1910, the SNF was transferred to the Kern National Forest, from which it returned to SNF in 1915 (Davis 1983). The Forest Service portion of the Wilderness has been managed by SNF since that time. As for the BLM portion, the eastern sections are managed by the Bakersfield Field Office and the southern sections are managed by the Ridgecrest Resource Area (California Desert District) (BLM 2017).
During the 1900s mining operations and cattle grazing continued in the southern Sierra Nevada, including the Scodie Mountains. In the late 1930s, upon completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct across the Mojave Desert, Murdo George McIver moved a small cabin that had been used as a guard shack during the construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct from the desert floor to the plateau in the Scodie Mountains (Geargrinders 2014). McIver and his wife had a small mining operation and strategically placed the cabin next to a spring, now called McIver's Spring. This is the only historical structure in the Wilderness and is a popular destination for OHV activity and PCT hikers. Descendants of the McIver's, their grandchildren and great-grandchildren, visit annually and maintain the cabin.
In the early 1940s, miners prospected for tungsten near Pinyon Peak (Valentine claims), but there is no record of production (Peterson and Capstick 1984). In the late 1950s miners prospected for quartz near Skinner Peak (Great White Way prospect), but likewise there is no record of production (Peterson and Capstick 1984). In the BLM portion of the Wilderness, many old mine tailings are visible on the slopes of the desert bajadas (Gardner, pers. obs.). Prospectors from the 1940s to 1960s carved their names and dates on boulders near old mining claims. In 1983, the USGS surveyed the Scodie Mountains and determined that mineral deposits within the area are small and lack resource potential (Harner et al. 1983). Under the California Desert Protection Act of 1994 all designated Wilderness areas were withdrawn from further mining operations, with existing claims active until the leasing agreements expire (BLM 2017).
In 1994, Congress designated a large portion of the Scodie Mountains as the Kiavah Wilderness under the California Desert Protection Act. There is only one modern structure in the Wilderness, a microwave tower along Horse Canyon Road, that is owned and operated by the Naval Air Weapons Station, China Lake. The PCT, well-traveled by hikers in the springtime, is the only maintained trail in the Wilderness. Horse Canyon Road and the PCT merge near the Microwave tower in the southwest section of the plateau and the road terminates at McIver's Spring/Cabin (USDA 2014; Fig. 2). Several other dirt roads provide minimal access to the Wilderness but are popular weekend destinations for OHV users and campers. Off-highway vehicle use is one of the greatest threats to the Wilderness. BLM and SNF signs are posted along the Wilderness boundaries to deter OHV users, but OHV trespassing was observed on many occasions during this study. In 2012, to further deter illegal OHV use, the Student Conservation Association began constructing barriers (fences and posts) along the southern BLM boundary. Cattle grazing continues on both BLM and SNF land, even after its designation as a Wilderness. Grazing allotments are located throughout the Wilderness (BLM 2017).
The Kiavah Wilderness is also a destination for target shooting and hunting. According to the Forest Service, visitors do not heavily impact the Wilderness because it does not have any outstanding features to draw many visitors or large crowds. The most harmful human activity, besides OHV use and humanmediated climate change, may be illegal marijuana farming. A remote marijuana farm was discovered by federal authorities in 2014 within the Wilderness. Damage done by these farmers included removal of the native understory vegetation, diversion of water from a nearby unmarked spring, and use of rodenticides. On 11 July 2014, the illegal farmers started a forest fire to destroy evidence of the farming operation, the Nicolls Fire, which burned ca. 1600 acres over 11 days (Incident Information System 2016). The fire cost the state of California an estimated $5.6 million to extinguish (Associated Press 2015).

BOTANICAL HISTORY
There has been no previous focused effort to inventory the plants of the Kiavah Wilderness and Scodie Mountains. Inventories of nearby areas include that of Owens Peak eastern watershed (Fraga 2008) and Red Rock Canyon and the El Paso Range (Twisselmann 1970). The earliest known plant specimen from the Wilderness was collected in 1911 by members of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology club at the University of California, Berkeley. Fewer than 10 specimens had been collected from the Scodie Mountains before the 1960s when Ernest Twisselmann made 61 collections. Upon completion of the PCT, Jim Shevock collected 142 specimens between 1979 and 1992. Others with significant numbers of collections are from LeRoy Gross (88) and Barbara Ertter (54). Table 2 is a list of all individuals and groups who made collections prior to my study.
According to records in the Consortium of California Herbaria (CCH) database (2013)

STUDY GOALS AND METHODS
The primary goal of the study was to document the vascular flora of the Kiavah Wilderness by surveying as much territory and as many habitats throughout the growing season as possible. This increases our botanical knowledge of the southern Sierra Nevada, adding to Fraga's (2008) study of the Owens Peak eastern watershed. Field surveys took place between March 2013 and May 2015, for a total of 68 days. All plant species that were encountered and identifiable (i.e., with reproductive parts) were documented via collection of ca. 1300 specimens. Special status taxa (endangered, threatened, sensitive, or watch-list; Table  5) were collected conservatively, taking into account population size and any previous documentation. Standard collection data were recorded, including GPS coordinates and descriptive habitat information. All recorded information was included on the herbarium specimen label. The first set of specimens was deposited at Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden (RSA) and duplicate sets were sent to the California Academy of Sciences (CAS) and the University of California, Riverside (UCR). All specimen information is accessible via the CCH database.
The ca. 630 specimens previously collected from the study area were located using the CCH database. These specimens, housed at CAS, UC/JEPS, RSA-POM and UCR, were examined to verify the determinations and update the nomenclature as needed; all were annotated.

Sierra Nevada Section
Single-Leaf Pinyon Woodland (Fig. 8).-The most common vegetation type in the Kiavah Wilderness is singleleaf pinyon woodland. It ranges in elevation from 1300 to 2200 m (4300-7200 ft) and occupies ridges, drainages, alluvial fans, level ground to steep slopes, and all aspects. It usually occurs on soils that are well drained. Pinus monophylla (singleleaf pinyon pine) is the dominant or co-dominant tree and the most common tree in the study area overall. The canopy is open or intermittent. Other trees that occur in this woodland include scattered P. jeffreyi (Jeffrey pine) and Quercus chrysolepis (canyon live-oak). Shrub species include Artemisia tridentata (big sagebrush) and Ephedra viridis (Mormon tea). The herbaceous layer consists of Claytonia spp. (miner's lettuce), Microsteris gracilis (slender phlox), Phacelia humilis var. dudleyi (Dudley's phacelia) and Stipa spp. (needle grass), among others.
The four consecutive years of exceptional drought led to widespread pine mortality, especially of Pinus monophylla, which was most severe from Mt. Pinos in the Emigdio Mountains through the Tehachapi Range into the southern Sierra Nevada (USDA 2015). I observed P. monophylla die-off in the Scodie Mountains over the course of the study. Figures 12-13 show two images of a slope in Horse Canyon taken exactly one year apart. Some individuals of P. monophylla appear brown and dead or dying in 2014, whereas their number had increased substantially one year later. This locality lies at the transition zone between the Desert Province and the Sierra Nevada of the California Floristic Province. At higher elevations, mortality appeared to be lower.
Cup leaf ceanothus chaparral (Fig. 9).-Ceanothus vestitus (cup leaf ceanothus) is dominant to co-dominant with Fremontodendron californicum (flannel bush). This is the second most extensive vegetation type at higher elevations (1800-2000 m, 6000-6700 ft). Cup leaf ceanothus chaparral carpets the plateau atop the Kiavah Wilderness. Ceanothus vestitus produces seedlings in abundance following fire (Sawyer et al. 2009). As discussed below, the plateau is undergoing post-fire succession following a fire in 1997. Understory vegetation is sparse.
Jeffrey pine forest (Fig. 10).-Dense pockets of Pinus jeffreyi are found in the Kiavah Wilderness at the highest elevations (1889-2000 m, 6200-6600 ft) on the plateau, ridges, along dry stream benches, and slopes of all aspects. Trees are relatively large, many over 40 ft tall, and the canopy is often continuous. These trees have withstood the assault of wildfires. Scorched trunks of some dead individuals remain upright (Fig. 10), but many more lie scattered on the plateau. Additional evidence that the plateau was once a woodland or forest is the presence of P. jeffreyi seedlings and re-sprouting Quercus chrysolepis. The understory of Jeffrey pine forest is sparse; however, grasses can be prominent, including Bromus spp. (brome grass), Poa secunda (pine bluegrass) and Stipa spp.
Ghost pine woodland.-Pinus sabiniana (ghost pine, gray pine) stands occur on xeric sites at lower elevations (900-1500 m, 3000-5000 ft) in the Sierra Nevada (Sawyer et al. 2009). In the Kiavah Wilderness, prominent stands occur at the upper end of Sage Canyon and along the northwestern and northern boundaries of the Wilderness, but the vegetation type is less widespread than Jeffrey pine forest and single-leaf pinyon woodland. Associated trees include the desert species P. monophylla and Yucca brevifolia (Joshua tree). Understory vegetation is sparse and includes Ephedra viridis, Eriogonum nudum var. westonii (Weston's buckwheat) and Opuntia basilaris (beavertail cactus).
Sagebrush scrub.-This vegetation type is generally found in flatter, sandy areas at higher elevations atop the plateau (1900 m, 6300 ft) and at lower elevations in flat drainages such as Jack's Creek (1400 m, 4800 ft) near Walker Pass. Artemisia tridentata (big sagebrush) is often co-dominant with Ephedra viridis and Eriogonum fasciculatum var. polifolium (California buckwheat). Herbaceous vegetation is sparse to lacking.
Joshua tree woodland (Fig. 11).-At lower elevations (1100-1600 m, 3700-5200 ft) on slopes and the desert floor, dense stands of Yucca brevifolia dominate. Species that often co-occur and can co-dominate are Artemisia tridentata, Ephedra viridis and Eriogonum fasciculatum var. polifolium. The herbaceous understory includes grasses such as Bromus tectorum (cheat grass), an invasive non-native, and a native, Poa secunda. Annual herbs include Camissonia kernensis subsp. kernensis (Kern County evening primrose) and Phacelia fremontii (Fremont's phacelia). Despite the drought, spring 2013 was a record bloom year for Y. brevifolia (James 2013) and almost all mature individuals were in full bloom (Fig. 11).

HABITAT TYPES
Intermittent Streams (Fig. 14) Most of the watercourses in the study area are seasonally wet, usually in the winter months. Small stands of Quercus chrysolepis, Salix lasiolepis (arroyo willow), Populus fremontii (Fremont's cottonwood) and Pinus sabiniana (gray pine) are infrequent along these seasonally wet streams. Diversity here is much greater than on adjacent exposed arid slopes.

Springs (Fig. 15)
Usually occurring in depressions on the plateau, springs are formed where water from below ground rises to the surface. Springs marked on topographic maps include Boulder Spring, McIver's Spring, Scodie Spring and Yellow Jacket Spring (Fig.  2). During the study, many of the springs were completely dry due to drought conditions. The graminoids Carex spp. (sedges), Juncus spp. (rushes), and grasses dominate these habitats. Nonnative taxa are abundant at all these sites, especially invasive grasses such as Festuca arundinacea (tall fescue) and Poa pratensis subsp. pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass). Wildlife as well as cattle and PCT hikers frequently visit these springs; the latter especially heavily impact McIver's and Yellow Jacket springs.
Granite Rock Outcrops (Fig. 16) Eroding granitic outcrops often harbor unique plant diversity compared to surrounding habitats. Shrubs common on granite outcrops include Ericameria cuneata (desert rock goldenbush), Ivesia spp. (mousetail), Penstemon newberryi (mountain pride), Holodiscus microphyllus (oceanspray), and Eriogonum spp. These plants grow in rock cracks and at the base of large boulders. Very large outcrops are often devoid of canopy cover and have little vegetation. Annuals can be found in abundance around the base of outcrops in sandy decomposed granite. High rock walls provide protection, shade, and moisture for annuals.

POST-FIRE SUCCESSION
The earliest recorded fire in the Wilderness occurred in August 1997. Started by lightning, it burned ca. 5700 acres mostly on the plateau (Schifrin et al. 2003). It consumed Jeffrey pine forest and single-leaf pinyon woodland. The only published observations of post-fire succession are in Southern California, Pacific Crest Trail, a hiking guide by Schifrin et al. (2003) that mentions that hikers should watch out for dermatitis-causing Eriodictyon parryi (poodle-dog bush) in the burn area. I encountered only two old plants of Eriodictyon parryi. Since the fire, Ceanothus vestitus and Fremontodendron californicum have grown into dense stands that are almost impassable except via deer trails that weave among the shrubs (Fig. 9). Understory plants are sparse except for Bromus tectorum, which invaded the post-burn site successfully. Around an unnamed spring at the headwaters of Scodie Canyon, hundreds if not thousands of Pinus jeffreyi saplings were observed in June 2014 (Fig. 17), indicating that the site has the seed bank and potential for Jeffrey pine forest to regrow. It has taken up to 17 years for these P. jeffreyi plants to reach the sapling stage. Pinus monophylla recruitment was not observed in the post-burn site; however, Quercus chrysolepis was observed re-sprouting from trunk bases.
A more recent fire occurred during the study on 11 July 2014 in the northwestern part of the Wilderness in Smith Canyon when marijuana farmers set a fire to destroy evidence of their growing operation. The Nicolls Fire burned ca. 1600 acres on slopes that were predominantly single-leaf pinyon woodland (Incident Information System 2016). In 2015, when I visited the burn site, drought conditions prevailed and plants were sparse but I documented Claytonia rubra (red stemmed spring beauty), Galium aparine (common bedstraw), Microsteris gracilis (slender phlox) and Dichelostemma capitatum subsp. capitatum (blue dicks). A few individuals of Quercus chrysolepis and Fremontodendron californicum were starting to re-sprout from their bases. Future surveys to document post-fire succession, including fire followers from the seed bank, would be informative.   (2012). Table 3 provides a summary of the flora.

Non-Native Taxa
A total of 28 non-native minimum-rank taxa were documented from 20 genera (   2016), each is ranked as high impact, which means a species has "severe ecological impacts on physical processes, plant and animal communities and vegetation structure." Another generalist species that was found in almost every habitat is Erodium cicutarium, which is ranked by Cal-IPC (2016) as having limited impact. Most of the non-native taxa were found around water sources, such as springs and cattle troughs, especially Cirsium vulgare, Festuca arundinacea and Taraxacum officinale. Riparian areas are frequented by wildlife, cattle and hikers and are thus dispersal sources and sinks for non-native plants that are adapted to these disturbed habitats.

Special Status Taxa
Collections made prior to the study documented 19 minimumrank taxa in the Kiavah Wilderness that are listed in the California Native Plant Society (CNPS) Inventory of Rare and Endangered Plants (2013). My study added seven taxa for a total of 26 (5.4% of the total flora) (   -wildfire-marijuana-grower-fined -6-5-million (Feb 2016).